ΑΜΕΡΙΚΑΝΙΚΗ ΣΗΨΙΓΟΝΙΑ ΠΑΓΚΟΣΜΙΟΣ ΧΑΡΤΗΣ

American foulbrood of honey bees

Index

• Identity
• Pathogen/s
• Overview
• Host Animals
• Hosts/Species Affected
• Distribution
• Distribution Table
• Diagnosis
• Disease Course
• Epidemiology
• Impact
• Disease Treatment
• Prevention and Control
• References
• Organisations
• Contributors
• Distribution Maps

Summary

• Last modified
• 14 May 2015

• Datasheet Type(s)
• Animal Disease

• Preferred Scientific Name
• American foulbrood of honey bees

• Pathogen/s
Paenibacillus larvae

• Host Animals
Apis (bees)
Apis mellifera

• Overview
This datasheet is about American foulbrood of honeybees as defined by the OIE (OIE, 2013a), i.e. a disease of the larval and pupal stages of honey bee, Apis melliferaand other Apis spp., which occurs in most countries where such bees are kept. It...
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Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

• American foulbrood of honey bees

International Common Names

• English: AFB; American foul brood; American foulbrood

Pathogen/s

Top of pagePaenibacillus larvae 

Overview

Top of page

This datasheet is about American foulbrood of honeybees as defined by the OIE (OIE, 2013a), i.e. a disease of the larval and pupal stages of honey bee, Apis mellifera and other Apis spp., which occurs in most countries where such bees are kept. It is on the list of diseases notifiable to the OIE, and the disease and pathogen are included in the Invasive Species Compendium for that reason.

The causative organism is a bacterium, Paenibacillus larvae, which can produce over 1 billion spores per infected larva. The spores are very long-lived and resistant to heat and chemical agents. Only the spores are capable of inducing the disease (OIE, 2013a).

Paenibacillus is a genus of Gram-positive, facultative anaerobic, endospore-forming bacteria. Members of this genus were originally included inBacillus, until reclassification separated them into a distinct genus in 1993 (Ash et al., 1993). Previously, American foulbrood and powdery scale disease were considered distinct (Graaf et al., 2006), but this is no longer valid and the pathogenic agents, Paenibacillus larvae subsp. larvaeand Paenibacillus larvae subsp. pulvifaciens, were reclassified as one species, Paenibacillus larvae (Genersch et al., 2006), although the subspecies are still referred to in the literature.

American foulbrood is a serious disease of honey bees worldwide and causes considerable economic losses (Basualdo et al., 2008). It has caused a significant decrease in honey bee populations, beekeeping industries and agricultural production (Antúnez et al., 2010). Honey bees are important to the agricultural and horticultural sectors as pollinators, so any disease causing decline in bee populations will have a significant impact on their role in these industries. Once this disease becomes established in a region it is very difficult to eradicate (Matheson and Reid, 1992).

Host Animals

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Animal name	Context	Life stage	System
Apis (bees)	Wild host	Other: Juvenile
Apis mellifera	Domesticated host, Wild host	Other: Juvenile

Hosts/Species Affected

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American foulbrood of honeybees is a disease of the larval and pupal stages of honey bees, Apis mellifera and other Apis spp., and occurs in most countries where such bees are kept (OIE, 2013a).

Robber bees may enter a hive that has become weakened by American foulbrood infection and take contaminated honey back to their hives, so assisting disease spread to other colonies and apiaries (Lindström et al., 2008).

Distribution

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American foulbrood has a worldwide distribution (D’Alessandro et al., 2007) and cases have been reported in almost all the beekeeping regions of the five continents (Antúnez et al., 2004). It appears to be uncommon or even absent in significant parts of sub-Saharan Africa (Fries and Raina, 2003), but has been reported from some countries there (Hansen et al., 2003).

Studies have shown geographical clustering of different genotypes; for example Peters et al. (2006) reported non-random distribution of five different genotypes in the district of Arnsberg, Germany.

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Country	Distribution	Last Reported	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	References	Notes
ASIA
Afghanistan	No information available					OIE, 2009
Armenia	Disease not reported					OIE, 2009
Azerbaijan	Disease not reported					OIE, 2009
Bahrain	Disease never reported					OIE, 2009
Bangladesh	No information available					OIE, 2009
Bhutan	No information available					OIE, 2009
Cambodia	No information available					OIE, 2009
China	Present					Näumann et al., 2012; OIE, 2009
-Hong Kong	No information available					OIE, 2009
Georgia (Republic of)	Present					OIE, 2009
India	No information available					OIE, 2009
Indonesia	Disease not reported					OIE, 2009
Iran	Present					OIE, 2009
Iraq	Present					OIE, 2009
Israel	Present					OIE, 2009
Japan	Present					OIE, 2009
Jordan	No information available					OIE, 2009
Kazakhstan	Disease not reported					OIE, 2009
Korea, Republic of	No information available					OIE, 2009
Kuwait	Disease not reported					OIE, 2009
Kyrgyzstan	Disease not reported					OIE, 2009
Laos	No information available					OIE, 2009
Lebanon	Present					OIE, 2009
Malaysia	Disease never reported					OIE, 2009
Mongolia	No information available					OIE, 2009
Myanmar	No information available					OIE, 2009
Nepal	No information available					OIE, 2009
Oman	No information available					OIE, 2009
Pakistan	No information available					OIE, 2009
Philippines	No information available					OIE, 2009
Qatar	No information available					OIE, 2009
Saudi Arabia	No information available					OIE, 2009
Singapore	Disease never reported					OIE, 2009
Sri Lanka	Disease never reported					OIE, 2009
Syria	No information available					OIE, 2009
Taiwan	Present					Chen et al., 2008
Tajikistan	Disease not reported					OIE, 2009
Thailand	Present					Chen et al., 2008; OIE, 2009
Turkey	Present					OIE, 2009
United Arab Emirates	Disease not reported					OIE, 2009
Vietnam	No information available					OIE, 2009
Yemen	No information available					OIE, 2009
AFRICA
Algeria	Present					OIE, 2009
Angola	No information available					OIE, 2009
Benin	No information available					OIE, 2009
Botswana	Disease never reported					OIE, 2009
Burkina Faso	No information available					OIE, 2009
Chad	No information available					OIE, 2009
Congo	No information available					OIE, 2009
Djibouti	Disease not reported					OIE, 2009
Egypt	Present					Al-Fattah et al., 2010; OIE, 2009
Eritrea	No information available					OIE, 2009
Ethiopia	Disease never reported					OIE, 2009
Gabon	No information available					OIE, 2009
Gambia	No information available					OIE, 2009
Ghana	No information available					OIE, 2009
Guinea	No information available					OIE, 2009
Guinea-Bissau	Present					Hansen et al., 2003; OIE, 2009	First confirmed in 2001.
Kenya	No information available					OIE, 2009
Lesotho	Disease never reported					OIE, 2009
Madagascar	Disease never reported					OIE, 2009
Malawi	No information available					OIE, 2009
Mali	No information available					OIE, 2009
Mauritius	Disease never reported					OIE, 2009
Morocco	No information available					OIE, 2009
Mozambique	No information available					OIE, 2009
Namibia	No information available					OIE, 2009
Nigeria	No information available					OIE, 2009
Rwanda	No information available					OIE, 2009
Senegal	No information available					OIE, 2009
South Africa	Present					Hansen et al., 2003; OIE, 2009; Human et al., 2011	First confirmed in 2001.
Sudan	Disease never reported					OIE, 2009
Swaziland	No information available					OIE, 2009
Tanzania	No information available					OIE, 2009
Togo	No information available					OIE, 2009
Tunisia	Disease not reported					OIE, 2009
Uganda	No information available					OIE, 2009
Zambia	No information available					OIE, 2009
Zimbabwe	No information available					OIE, 2009
NORTH AMERICA
Canada	Present					OIE, 2009
Greenland	Disease never reported					OIE, 2009
Mexico	Present					Djordjevic et al., 1994; OIE, 2009
USA	Present					OIE, 2009
CENTRAL AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN
Belize	Disease not reported					OIE, 2009
Costa Rica	Present					OIE, 2009
Cuba	Present					OIE, 2009
Dominican Republic	Disease never reported					OIE, 2009
El Salvador	Disease not reported					OIE, 2009
Guadeloupe	No information available					OIE, 2009
Guatemala	Disease not reported					OIE, 2009
Haiti	No information available					OIE, 2009
Honduras	No information available					OIE, 2009
Jamaica	Disease not reported					OIE, 2009
Martinique	Disease never reported					OIE, 2009
Nicaragua	No information available					OIE, 2009
Panama	No information available					OIE, 2009
SOUTH AMERICA
Argentina	Restricted distribution					OIE, 2009; Alippi, 1992; Alippi, 1997
Bolivia	No information available					OIE, 2009
Brazil	Present					Schuch et al., 2003; OIE, 2009
Chile	Present					OIE, 2009
Colombia	Disease never reported					OIE, 2009
Ecuador	Disease never reported					OIE, 2009
French Guiana	Disease never reported					OIE, 2009
Peru	Disease not reported					OIE, 2009
Uruguay	Present					OIE, 2009
Venezuela	Disease never reported					OIE, 2009
EUROPE
Albania	No information available					OIE, 2009
Austria	Present					OIE, 2009
Belarus	Disease not reported					OIE, 2009
Belgium	Present					OIE, 2009
Bosnia-Hercegovina	Present					Hadzimuratovic et al., 1986
Bulgaria	Present					OIE, 2009
Croatia	Present					OIE, 2009
Cyprus	Present					OIE, 2009
Czech Republic	Present					OIE, 2009
Denmark	Present					OIE, 2009
Estonia	Present					OIE, 2009
Finland	Present					OIE, 2009
France	Restricted distribution					OIE, 2009
Germany	Present					OIE, 2009
Greece	Restricted distribution					OIE, 2009
Hungary	Present					OIE, 2009
Iceland	Disease never reported					OIE, 2009
Ireland	Present					OIE, 2009
Italy	Present					OIE, 2009
Latvia	Disease not reported					OIE, 2009
Liechtenstein	Disease not reported					OIE, 2009
Lithuania	Disease not reported					OIE, 2009
Luxembourg	Disease not reported					OIE, 2009
Macedonia	Present					OIE, 2009
Malta	Absent, reported but not confirmed					OIE, 2009
Montenegro	Present					OIE, 2009
Netherlands	Present					OIE, 2009
Norway	Disease not reported					OIE, 2009
Poland	Present					OIE, 2009
Portugal	Present					OIE, 2009
Romania	Present					OIE, 2009
Russian Federation	Present					OIE, 2009
Serbia	Present					OIE, 2009
Slovakia	Present					OIE, 2009
Slovenia	Present					OIE, 2009
Spain	Restricted distribution					OIE, 2009
Sweden	Present					OIE, 2009
Switzerland	Present					OIE, 2009
UK	Present					OIE, 2009
Ukraine	Disease not reported					OIE, 2009
OCEANIA
Australia	Present					OIE, 2009
Fiji	Present					Djordjevic et al., 1994
French Polynesia	No information available					OIE, 2009
New Caledonia	Present					OIE, 2009
New Zealand	Present					OIE, 2009

Diagnosis

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The most obvious clinical symptom of American foulbrood is the creamy or dark brown, glue-like larval remains of infected larvae. This is not conclusive, and in addition, diseased cells can easily be overlooked during the early stages of infection (Graaf et al., 2006). At an intermediate stage of larval decay, the remains can be drawn out into a brown mucus-like thread 10-30 mm long; this is stated by FERA (2013) to be a reliable test for the presence of American foulbrood.

Bzdil (2007) described a method for detecting spores of P. larvae in the debris and wax of honey bees using the homogenization agent Tween 80. Material suspected of containing spores is homogenized at 70±2 °C with distilled water and Tween 80. When compared to the method of dissolving wax samples in toluene or benzene and releasing them in a liquid medium, the Tween method was found to be more effective at detecting P. larvae spores.

However, although several sensitive and selective culture media are available for the isolation of this bacterium (Graaf et al., 2006) and clinical symptoms caused by this disease can be diagnosed using colony inspections, such as the method described by Bzdil (2007), Gillard et al. (2008) describe these as time-consuming.

Studies to investigate alternative methods of diagnosis concluded that analysis of honey samples and bees collected at the entrance of the hive are of limited value for diagnosis, because only 86 and 83%, respectively, of samples from colonies showing symptoms of infection were positive (Gillard et al., 2008). Gillard et al. (2008) recommended testing bee samples from the brood nest, edge frame or honey chamber for P. larvae spores.

Other studies have concentrated on decreasing diagnosis time by using real-time PCR diagnostics (e.g. Chagas et al., 2010; Martínez et al., 2010). Chagas et al. (2010) studied the detection of P. larvae using real-time PCR, with the aim of decreasing diagnosis time and ensuring that robustness was not lost, as with conventional PCR methods. They concluded that analysis by real-time PCR of the 16S rDNA gene ofPaenibacillus represents an alternative, rapid diagnostic tool for the disease.

In addition to the development of PCR methods for identification and genotyping of P. larvae, other methods available for identification are biochemical profiling, bacteriophage sensitivity, immunological techniques and microscopy of suspect bacterial strains (Graaf et al., 2006).

OIE (2013a) provides an outline of the different diagnostic techniques.

Disease Course

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Goodwin et al. (1993) stated that there are three possible states of infection: contamination, where P. larvae is present in the hive, but causes no ill effects; subclinical infection, where it adversely affects at least the larvae, although no disease is apparent to observers; and clinical infection, where it adversely affect the larvae and visible signs of American foulbrood are present.

Once a larva has become infected via contaminated food, the spores germinate in the larval gut and the vegetative bacteria move into the gut tissues where they multiply enormously in number. Infected larvae normally die after their cells are sealed, and millions of infective spores are formed in their remains. The dried remains of the larvae adhere to the cell walls and cannot easily be removed by bees, meaning that the comb remains contaminated (FERA, 2013).

Epidemiology

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P. larvae spores contaminate brood food. The spores are then ingested by larvae up to 3 days old and germinate in the gut of the larva. Spores do not germinate in larvae that are older than 3 days; larvae less than 24 hours old are the most susceptible to infection. The vegetative form of the bacterium develops and gains nourishment from the larva. Eventually the larva dies as a result of the growth of the bacteria and the vegetative form of the bacterium also dies, but before doing so it produces millions of spores. One hundred million spores may be contained in one dead larva (Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, undated).

Adult bees spread American foulbrood (AFB) throughout hives as they attempt to remove the dead larvae that contain spores, and thus contaminate brood food. The brood chamber fills with contaminated honey, because spores are contained in the nectar of contaminated cells. As the honey is moved up into the supers of the hive, the entire hive will be contaminated with spores (Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, undated).

Robber bees prey on weakened hives and colonies are weakened by AFB infection. These bees may take contaminated honey back to their hives and so spread the disease to other colonies and apiaries. Beekeepers may also unwittingly spread the disease on equipment (Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, undated). Recent studies have also shown that small hive beetles, Aethina tumida, are vectors of P. larvae (Schäfer et al., 2010).

The spores of P. larvae are very resistant to desiccation and can remain viable for more than 40 years in honey and on equipment. Beekeepers are therefore advised to avoid honey for feeding bees, if the source is unknown, and that used beekeeping equipment should be assumed to be contaminated unless known not to be (Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, undated).

Impact

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Economic Impact

American foulbrood is a serious disease of honey bees worldwide and causes considerable economic losses (Basualdo et al., 2008). This disease has caused a significant decrease in honeybee populations, beekeeping industries and agricultural production (Antúnez et al., 2010). Honey bees are important to the agricultural and horticultural sectors as pollinators (the value of pollination is estimated to exceed the value of products from beehives many-fold -- Delaplane and Mayer, 2000), so any disease causing decline in bee populations will have a significant impact on their role in these industries.

Social Impact

The effect of American foulbrood outbreaks on honeybee health will also have a significant impact on honey products and thus the livelihood of beekeepers.

Environmental Impact

Impact on habitats

A decline in bee numbers has been attributed to American foulbrood, amongst other bee diseases. Bee decline will have a significantly negative affect on pollination within habitats that rely on these insects for development (Delaplane and Mayer, 2000).

Impact on biodiversity

A decline in native bees due to the spread of American foulbrood will have a negative effect on bee biodiversity (Cuthbertson and Brown, 2009).

Disease Treatment

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Antibiotics are used to treat American foulbrood (AFB) in a number of countries, but in the UK (at least) it is compulsory to destroy infected colonies – the use of antibiotics is prohibited on the grounds that they are ineffective and merely suppress signs of the disease without eradicating it (FERA, 2013).

The development of resistance to commonly used antibiotics such as oxytetracycline, and the presence of residues in honey, have triggered the need for alternative control agents.

Kloucek et al. (2008) have studied the antibacterial activity of the tree Paulownia tomentosa and tested 8 geranylflavanoids against P. larvae. They reported high antibacterial activity against the vegetative stages of P. larvae subsp. larvae strains.

Propolis is a derivative from plant resins collected by Apis mellifera and is antimicrobial. Several studies have investigated the use of propolis to treat hives infected with P. larvae (e.g. Bastos et al., 2008; Antúnez et al., 2008). Bastos et al. (2008) carried out tests in Brazil and Minnesota, USA, using propolis from various Brazilian states. Antúnez et al. (2008) evaluated the efficacy of a propolis ethanolic extract (PEE) against P. larvae, in vitro and in vivo, and as a therapeutic tool for the control of AFB. Toxicity against honeybees was also evaluated. They concluded that PEE appears to be a novel, natural and harmless alternative for the treatment of AFB-affected hives.

Following development of oxytetracycline-resistant P. larvae-strains, subsequent studies have looked at alternative antibiotics and essential oils (e.g. Elzen et al., 2002; Chirila et al., 2011; Maggi et al., 2011; Roussenova, 2011). Elzen et al. (2002) reported that tylosin, an antibiotic, is effective in controlling oxytetracycline-resistant P. larvae in honey bee colonies, with no effect on adult and larval bee mortality.

Later research by Chirila et al. (2011) found a mixed response to various antibiotics and essential oils against samples of P. larvae subsp.larvae from 4 counties in Transylvania, Romania. Bacterial isolates were sensitive to penicillin, erythromycin, oxytetracycline, lincomycin, and enrofloxacin. Thyme, pine and mint oil were most active against vegetative forms of P. larvae.

Evidence of inhibition of P. larvae by omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids has been documented (Rumanovská et al., 2011).

Preliminary studies have investigated the possibility of using ozone as a fumigant against honey bee diseases including AFB. Ozone is a powerful oxidant, capable of killing insects and microorganisms (as well as eliminating odours, taste and colour). Treatment with ozone served to sterilize P. larvae, but only when certain concentrations and exposure times were used in conjunction with temperatures of 50 C and ≥75% relative humidity (James, 2011). James (2011) concluded that further evaluation of ozone was required, tailored to acceptability and efficacy in the field.

Cherif et al. (2008) reported the discovery of entomocin 110, a bacteriocin from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. entomocidus HD 110. It was found to be inhibitory against several Gram-positive bacteria, including P. larvae.  Entomocin 110 is proteinaceous in nature, and with a bactericidal and bacteriolytic mode of action.

Bacteria antagonistic to P. larvae have been discovered in honeybees (Sabaté et al., 2009; Yoshiyama and Kimura, 2009) and honey samples (Alippi and Reynaldi, 2006; Sabaté et al., 2009). Both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria were found in the digestive tract of Japanese honeybees, Apis cerana japonica, using histological and 16S rRNA gene sequence analyses (Yoshiyama and Kimura, 2009). Bacterial populations in the gut were found to be diverse and in vitro assays were used to determine inhibition of isolates against P. larvae. Out of 35 isolates tested, 7 showed potential as biocontrol agents against P. larvae, and most of these were Bacillus spp..

Bacillus subtilis was isolated from honeybee guts and honey samples, and shown to inhibit P. larvae. In particular, it was shown that surfactin inhibited P. larvae, which were immediately affected upon contact. It was concluded that apiculture may benefit from the co-productive activities of Bacillus strains in producing surfactin and a fungicide, to biologically control P. larvae (Sabaté et al., 2009).

There are other bacteria which are antagonistic to P. larvae: aerobic spore-forming Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus licheniformis and several isolates of Bacillus cereus (Alippi and Reynaldi, 2006).

Munawar et al. (2010) investigated the shook swarm method for control of AFB. This involved reducing spore numbers in the mouths of the bees by starving them and shifting them to new, clean hives with new foundation sheets. The results demonstrated that swarms decreased their spore load significantly.

Prevention and Control

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Beekeepers need to take care not to introduce the disease to their colonies, and to ensure that any new cases are recognised and promptly quarantined and dealt with before it can spread to other colonies. In the UK (at least), infected colonies must be destroyed by burning (FERA, 2013).

The OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code (OIE, 2013b) regulates the movement of bees, equipment and bee products from countries or zones where the disease is or may be present -- adult bees must come from apiaries meeting certain conditions including an absence of local outbreaks, eggs, larvae and pupae must be inspected by a method in the OIE Terrestrial Manual (OIE, 2013a), equipment must be sterilised, and products must be sterilised or inspected.

In addition to the application of chemical control to the bees themselves, beekeepers can also safeguard against the spread of AFB, by disinfecting equipment, which can harbour infection and exacerbate the problem. Hives and appliances can be sterilised by scorching them with a blowlamp and clothing can be washed thoroughly in washing soda or hot soapy water (FERA, 2013). Studies showed that Huwa-san® TR 50 has sporocidal properties and can be used to disinfect metal, wood and wax combs (Gurgulova et al., 2007),

Bee hygienic behaviour refers to cell uncapping and the removal of diseased or parasitized larvae. Bee resistance to brood infectious diseases such as AFB can be increased by selecting for hygienic bees. Invernizzi and Rodríguez (2007) reported that colony hygienic behaviour increased from 77.7±20.9 to 98±1.7% after 6 generations, alongside a decrease in brood diseases from 50 to 0%. Less hygienic behaviour was observed in the diseased colonies than in the healthy ones.

Later, a study by Basualdo et al. (2008) aimed to determine the spread of AFB in a commercial apiary where queens had been selected for hygienic behaviour. Hives that were found to be positive for AFB were isolated from the rest of the apiary and the queens of the remaining hives were replaced with queens selected for hygienic behaviour. AFB prevalence was then monitored, visually and through spore isolation from honey and bee samples.  It was concluded that sampling of the bees, compared to the honey, was a better option for early diagnosis of AFB as it was more sensitive. The researchers stated that the disease could be controlled sufficiently using bee sampling and hygienic bee lines.

(See also the ‘Disease Treatment’ section).

References

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Al-Fattah MAA, El-Awady M, Gelan MI, Barakat OS, 2010. Microbiological and molecular diagnosis of American foulbrood in honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) colonies. Arab Journal of Biotechnology, 13(1):1-12. http://www.acgssr.org/BioTechnology/Volume13N1January2010_files/Full_Paper/001.pdf

Alippi A, 1997. Background on American foulbrood in Argentina. Bee World, 78(2):92-95.

Alippi AM, 1992. Characterization of Bacillus larvae White, the causative agent of American foulbrood of honey-bees. First record of its occurrence in Argentina. Revista Argentina de Microbiología, 24(2):67-72.

Alippi AM, Reynaldi FJ, 2006. Inhibition of the growth of Paenibacillus larvae, the causal agent of American foulbrood of honeybees, by selected strains of aerobic spore-forming bacteria isolated from apiarian sources. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 91(3):141-146. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WJV-4J6180B-1&_user=3891418&_handle=V-WA-A-W-AW-MsSWYWW-UUA-U-AAZAACEBWW-AACYDVUAWW-ABBZBEEYE-AW-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=03%2F31%2F2006&_rdoc=3&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236888%232006%23999089996%23618442!&_cdi=6888&view=c&_acct=C000028398&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=3891418&md5=b373781fd57161cbb274352b09176e79

Antúnez K, Anido M, Evans JD, Zunino P, 2010. Secreted and immunogenic proteins produced by the honeybee bacterial pathogen, Paenibacillus larvae. Veterinary Microbiology, 141(3/4):385-389. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03781135

Antúnez K, D'Alessandro B, Piccini C, Corbella E, Zunino P, 2004. Paenibacillus larvae larvae spores in honey samples from Uruguay: a nationwide survey. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 86(1/2):56-58.

Antúnez K, Harriet J, Zunino P, 2008. Propolis as a natural alternative for the treatment of hives infected with spores of Paenibacillus larvae, causal agent of American foul brood. (Propóleos como alternativa natural para el tratamiento de colmenas infectadas con esporas de Paenibacillus larvae, agente causal de la Loque Americana.) Veterinaria (Montevideo), 43(171):9-14. http://www.smvu.com.uy

Ash C, Priest FG, Collins MD, 1993. Molecular identification of rRNA group 3 bacilli (Ash, Farrow, Wallbanks and Collins) using a PCR probe test. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, 64(3/4):253-260.

Bastos EMAF, Simone M, Jorge DM, Soares AEE, Spivak M, 2008. In vitro study of the antimicrobial activity of Brazilian propolis against Paenibacillus larvae. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 97(3):273-281. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WJV-4PXDM97-3&_user=6686535&_coverDate=03%2F31%2F2008&_rdoc=12&_fmt=full&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%236888%232008%23999029996%23681109%23FLA%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=6888&_sort=d&_docanchor=&_ct=19&_acct=C000066028&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=6686535&md5=3d5ef480e0dc604256ea13e9d0c02d67

Basualdo M, Figini E, Torres J, Tabera A, Libonatti C, Bedascarrasbure E, 2008. Control of American foulbrood disease in Argentine commercial apiaries through the use of queens selected for hygienic behaviour. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research, 6(2):236-240.

Bzdil J, 2007. Detection of Paenibacillus larvae spores in the debris and wax of honey bee by the Tween 80 method. Acta Veterinaria Brno, 76(4):643-648.

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Organisations

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UK: British Beekeepers’ Association, National Beekeeping Centre, Stoneleigh Park, Stoneleigh, Warwickshire, CV8 2LG, UK,www.britishbeekeepers.com

World: IBRA, International Bee Research Association, Unit 6, Centre Court, Main Avenue, Treforest, RCT, CF37 5YR, UK, www.ibra.org.uk

World: OIE (World Organisation for Animal Health), 12, rue de Prony, 75017 Paris, France, http://www.oie.int/

Contributors

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23/03/2012: Original text by:

Dr Claire Beverley, CABI, Nosworthy Way, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, OX10 8DE, UK.

Distribution Maps

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• = Present, no further details
• = Evidence of pathogen
• = Widespread
• = Last reported
• = Localised
• = Presence unconfirmed
• = Confined and subject to quarantine
• = See regional map for distribution within the country
• = Occasional or few reports

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